Scales are a big topic, here's a very small reply.
Scales are sequences of notes that relate in a certain way. A simple example is the C Major scale - the white notes on the piano, starting at the 'C' key and going to the right. Usually considered to be 8 notes so it starts on one 'C' and ends on the next highest 'C'. Other scales can begin at any note on the piano but then the black keys have to be used depending on the start, to keep the same relationships.
Of course, whatever notes occur in a scale on a piano also occur on a guitar. One difference is that the same tone can be found only once on a piano while it is in multiple places on a guitar.
Scales are considered by some people to be essential to learning music, but others have done very well not practicing them so much as paying attention to chords and melody. Chords are several notes played together, they underly most music. Often they are depicted as certain member notes of a scale.
Callouses are hardenings of the skin. Playing the guitar, especially steel-stringed models, will cause callouses to build on the fingertips of the fretting hand (left hand for most players). They are good to have because they help insulate from the pain of steel strings vibrating into your fingers.
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